1. Explain the theory of evolution.
Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection requires three conditions. The first, variation, is the difference in genes of members in the same species. For example, some finches had big beeks and some small ones. The next condition is selection, which consists of survival of the members of the species depending on their genetical differences, for example, finches with biger beaks can crush nuts with hard shell while the finches with small beaks can't. Therefore the bigger-beaked birds will survive in places where the only food are nuts. The third aspect of evolution is retention of the "chosen members" that were able to adapt to the surrounding. Universally said, evolution is the survival od the fittest.
2. Explain the“nature vs nurture” debate.
The nature vs nature debate is concenpt of struggle between heridity and environment and which of these two influences an individual more. Genes in DNA are the foundation of traits, yet without organism they are useless. For example, one may be born with genes for better running, yet without good nutrition provided by the environment those genes will neve be developed in traits. Genes develop the right traits only in the right environment. Genes themselves are the genetic code, also called genotype, that is part of the body, yet not all of it is expressed. The genes that are actually expressed as traits are called phenotypes.
3. What is wrong with the concept of “nature vs. nurture”?
Both, heredity and environment may have an equal effect on the development
4. What is meant by“social Darwinism”?
When the idea of evolution spread through the Victorian society, some peple like Herbert Spencer thought that people who are at the top of the society are more "fit". It was spencer who came up with the term "survival of the fittest". Some people then used this as an excuse to exploit of others.
5. Explain eugenics.
People realized that some individuals are more capable than others. They came up with an idea that if only the most capable were able to reproduce, they could create superior human race, just like people breed dogs and roses. This idea of breeding superior human race is called eugenetics.
6. What is the problem with the concept of eugenics?
Eugenetics is based on misunderstanding of the theory of evolution. It assumes that genes of some individuals are more superior compared to the other individuals. While this may seem true, with every sexual reproduction these genes switch around and new combinations with new traits are expressed. This fake superiority makes some of the individuals hink that they have more right to reproduce than others or even prevent them from reproducing.
7. What does the term “fitness” mean in relation to evolution?
Biological fitness in Darwin's term means an allele of a gene that makes its carrier more sucessful than other alelles of that gene. This carrier is morel likely to live sucessful life and produce more helathy offsprings. An example is an allele that has a resistance to some sort of deadly disease.
8. What is meant by“genetic determination”?
Belief that genes and the environment determine physical and mental development.
9. What is“fixation”?
Fixation is a new "froezn"trait. When a gene becomes ccommon in population due to genetic drift or natural selection, the population becomse comitted to it can be changed only due to mutation.
10. What is“canalization”?
It is a way of fixating genes where a trait is "controlled by family of genes for which there is only one allele in humans that all produce the same result" (page 32). In this case, the phenotypes are all the same.
11. What is“punctuated equilibrium”?
In African lakes, geologists found meters of snail skells thanks to whci they can recognize the differences of their adaptations throughout thousands of generations. However, not all generations differe and some traits are unchanged during many generations. Punctuated equilibrium is a time where natural selection exists, but it serves to maintain the existing form.
12. How does evolution relate to psychology?
Evolutionary psychology is another aspect of evolution. It applies biological changes to psychology and asks question such as "What are the bases of expirience, behavior, mind, and memory, of development and social interaction? Where do they come fom, and what are they for?" (page 3). They same way our bodies and the phycical structures were adapted, the same way was our mind.
Theo13. Examine one evolutionary explanation of behavior. Theorizing aAout Violen Crime (page 65)
It was observed that males vary in the tendencies to take care of their children. There are the males who are willing to commit to parenthood and take care of their children, also called
dads. Then there are males who do not go beyond donating their sperm, these are called
cads.
Females are due to sexual selection theory more attracted to dads, who are more likely to take care of their offsprings, which highers their chance of rerpoduction. Evn though their chances to pass on their genes are lowere, cads also have opportunity to repsoduce. They can promise loyalty and then leave after the female is impregnated. They can intimidate rival males, exaggarate their abilities as good providers by stealing from others. Or they can foce someone to have sex with them when all the other "nice" methods fail. They question is whether their behavior is genetically programmed. One of the answers may be that there is a condition called psychopacy, that is more common in males and causes them to be more manipulative, agressive and violent.
In 2002 in the USA, 19 884 men were arrested for rape compared to 278 women for the same aasault (page 64).
Source for questions 1-12:
Source for question 13:
Dutch Hunger Winter lasted from November 1944. It was time period of World War II when North Neatherlands was under the German blockade and expiriencing very harsh winter at the same time. Germans took control of the food and sent it to Germany and thus the Dutch people were suffering from hunger. They nutrition intake was reduced to 30% of the normal nutrient intake.
Also those people whose mothers were malnourished early in pregnancy had higher rates of obesity and other health problems including mental health, specifically shyzophrenia. Schyzophrenia is an ilness currenly affects about 50 million people worldwide. It causes hallucinations, delusions adn difficulties to mentally focus. Since people are not able to distinguish between reality and "the other world" it is dangerous, especially if these peiple are dangerous, which isn't very common. However, it can be treated. People with schizophrenia have 50 as much chance to commin suicide than other individuals. 