Stroke: An Assault on the Brain

1. Explain what happens to the brain when a stroke occurs.

 When a stroke occurs, brain is noit getting enough blood supply and therefore is shortened of oxygen supply.

2. Briefly explain the differences between the three different types of strokes.

Ischemic stroke occurs when arteries are clogged by blood clots that lad to head. This type of stroke divides in embolic and thrombotic. Embolic stroke occurs when a blood clot form somewhere in the body, break off and travel to the head where they block brain's blood vessels. Thrombotic stroke occurs when a clot forms in the artery supping blood to the brain.

3. Identify some of the most common risk factors - in other words, who is most likely to have a stroke?

Old people, people with hich cholesterol and high blood pressure. And people who eat unhealthy things that makes them fat and clogs their arteries. also stress increases stroke chances along with genetics.

4. What disabilities can result from a stroke?

Paralyzation, death, unability to speak...Depending on what part of the brain is damaged during the stoke.

5. What is brain plasticity and what does it mean in terms of recovering from a stroke? 

Brain plasticity is the ability of brain to change. This change occurs due to learning something new or a damage to the brain. While it was thought that brain doesn't form/destroy the pathways, it is possible even in adulthood. Stroke may change some pathways in brain as a result, slightly changing its functions.




Notes from video:
atroke every 45 seconds in america
stroke- brain attack when blood supply is damaged, results in death of cells and brain damage, skills controlled by that area are lost (speech, movement, memory)
effects on person dependson what area was afflicted and how much damage was done
ischemis stroke- 83% of cases, occur when artyeries are clogged by blood clots that lead to tyhe head- resultsin issufiecient oxygen supply to that part of the brain
divides into embolic and thrombolic
embolic  when blood clot formss somewhere in the body and breaks of and travels to the head and blocks brain's blood vesels
thrombatic forms clot in artery suppling bloodto tye brain

hemorragic strokes- 75% of cases, more dangerous,  when aa blood vessel in brain ruptures and bleeds into the brain causing pressure on brain tissue
intercerebral or subarachnoid
intercerebral occurse when bleeding occurs in thebrain itself, high blood pressure is the main cause
subarachnoid hemmorage occurs when blood spills to the spinal fluid around the brain  causing it to be surrounded by conaminated fluid

Source:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=fKrXCly1kK0
http://www.brainandnerves.com/uk/blood-vessels-of-the-brain/stroke/

Biology and Technology

Definition:
CT: computed tomography, uses x-rays and powerful computers to create cross section pictures of body

PET: positron emission tomography, uses a radioactive substance called tracer to look for diseases and shows how well tissues in body work

FMRI: functional magnetic resonance imaging, measures brain activity by monitoring changes in blood

How does each work?
CT: X-ray machine "scans" body, depending of which part is being scanned because radiation isn't healthy and is limited as much as possible by special covers. For some examinations a contrast dye is give to patient through IV, rectum or orally, depending on the examination, to make some parts to be clearer on the x-ray which can be in form of a photograph.





PET: The patient is given tracer, usually given through  IV, asked not to eat 4-6 before the test. After the traces is absorbed, the patient is laid on a table and put into a special tube. The tracer goes through various organs through the blood system and is visible on monitors in 3-D which help diagnose the patient. This method



FMRI: Measures the amount of oxygen in blood. The neural activity in brain requires oxygen. fMRI uses strong electromagnet to see which part of brain is working based on how much oxygen is being used. This happens in a tube machine in which the patient lays motionlessly.









What is able to be learned through the use of each?
CT:  Studying blood vessels, blood clots, broken bones, infections, stroke and bleeding in brain

PET: Brain function, cancer, heart problems, brain disorders

FMRI: Which part of brain is functioning

How can each be used to explain human behavior?
CT: May help unusual behavior by diagnosing patient as having a stroke. Another example is hydrocephalus ( build up of fluid in brain)common in old people and infants. The symptoms may be above all vomiting, irritability and sleeplessness.

PET: Helps to diagnose brain damage, dementia or tell the difference between Parkinson's or other movement disease. For example, PET may show the spiral way of how the brain cells die, which is symptom of Alzheimer's disease

FMRI: Scientists are able to go as far as "read mind" of a person by showing him/her a picture while in the machine, scanning which part of the brain is activated when the person thinks of this object/how to use it/ how to hold it/ his or her experience with it, and record this data. So far, people had very similar results for the same objects.


Sources:
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/007342.htm
http://psychcentral.com/lib/2007/what-is-functional-magnetic-resonance-imaging-fmri/

Nature vs Nurture: The Twin Edition

Twin Studies:
 Studies and observations based on genetic information of twins. These studies are mainly used to determine the impact of the environment and genetics on humans.

Adoption Studies:
Studies that observe the nature vs nurture impact on psychological development. The focus falls on children with disorder and whore biological parents have it, too, but adoptive parents do not. This helps to show how the psychological illness develop and whether they are caused and impacted only by genetics or also environment.

Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart (MISTRA)
MISTRA is a study done in times when it was widely believed that personalities are 100% molded by the environment. It lasted from 1979 and ended 20 years and it is considered one of the most important psychological studies for past 50 years.
There are different types of twins; monozygotic when an egg splits into two in the womb and the twins have the same genes and dizygotic, when two eggs are fertilized and the twins have about 50% same DNA. MISTRA observed 81 monozygotic twin pairs (MZ) and 56 dizygotic twin pairs (DZA)who were used as controls, to find out which traits are given by the genetics and which are determined by the environment. The result was shocking for the time period; genes have a huge impact on how we develop.
Candidates for research were twins separated before the age of four who lived apart more than 95% of their life. Many times these siblings lived in different states and acknowledged each other existence during the MISTRA research. Some, however, met before while searching for their biological parents or just by coincidence, but this variable was also used as a research and suggests that the quirky similarities between twins weren't modified by their acquaintances.
The studies say that intelligence levels of MZ twins are very similar and that testing them is like  "testing the same person twice".
Big surprise were the personality findings where was assumed that personality is formed by the environment. Studies shown that personality is about 50% given by the genes and the environment that person makes for himself, or the "non-shared environment". Many parents think that how they raise their children determines who they will become, but they are wrong. The household, the "shared environment", has some impact but it was shown that twins reared apart and twins who grow up together have very similar yet not identical personalities.
Among traits that are determined mostly by genes are hand coordination  becoming better with practice, headache frequencies, dependency on alcohol, intensity of religion (religion is determined by the environment and usually taken over from parents), morning vs evening person, likely hood of gum disease (even with different diets) and spelling abilities.
As far as sexual orientation, men are more more influenced by the genes, while women are more to be influenced by the environment, for example they are more likely to establish relations with women when they are not attractive to men.
Children who grow up together develop subconscious anti-incest mechanism. It wasn't surprising then that the DZA different sex twins were often flirtatious which each other when they met.

Ethical Issues
Most twins separated at birth were not even aware they had a twin. For some, it might have been a traumatic experience to find out they are adopted. Questions like "who are my real parents?" or "Why didn't they keep me?" appeared in their minds. Also, if one twin suffers from some genetic disorder, the other twin is most likely but not for 100% going to have the same condition. This other twin is very likely to spend their life thinking about getting the disease and worrying and in the end may not even get it.

Pros
The science behind twin and personality was cleared, not completely, but significantly. It is known now that personality is very much affected by the genes but not entirely. It is still known to what extent but it leads to more knowledge and maybe even as a semi-solid bases for new studies. If scientist will be able to identify which gene exactly does what or what environmental causes trigger of certain habits and how they can prevent someone, for example from alcoholism, it would significantly improve one's life.

Cons
"Labeling something doesn't explain the process by which it happens" says Evan Balaban, a scientist who transports brain cells from quails to chickens so they sing like quails. Also, there are many genes which interact in many different ways that at this rate it will take a lot of time for science to figure out how it works. Also, if everything was proven to be genetic, the society would attack the environmental causes that would eliminate some people.


Sources:
http://www.reference.md/files/D018/mD018486.html
http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/content/155/7/585.full#sec-11
http://www.psychology-lexicon.com/cms/glossary/glossary-a/1582-adoption-study.html
http://www.amren.com/features/2012/07/science-versus-ideology/
Nature and Nurture: When It Comes to Twins, Sometimes It's Hard To Tell the Twin Apart by Arthur Allen; Washington Post (Sunday, Jan 11, 1998)

Sperry and Gazzaniga: The Split Brain Study

1. What does it mean for a person's brain to be "split"?
A person can live with his brain literally split in two. Human brain has two sections, the left one responsible for rational, analytical, quantitative and logical thinking and the right one responsible for imaginative, conceptual and intuitive. If these two hemispheres are separated, the patient will survive only with some notable differences. The person wasn't able to learn with the two hemispheres simultaneously.

2. What was the reason why this procedure was performed on patients?
These two hemispheres are connected together by a little bundle of nerves called corpus callosum that used to be cut in 1960' to treat a kind of epilepsy.

3. Explain one of the tests Sperry and Gazzaniga performed on these split brain patients.
a) A person with split brain would be shown a picture, for example a fork, and then asked what it is.

b) Person would be given an object and asked what it was.

4. What were the results of this test?
a) The person would not be able to say what the picture is, yet would be able to write it on the paper and be aware that he wrote something.

b) If a person would be given an object, for example a toothbrush, to hand that is taken care of by hemisphere also responsible for visual things, person would understand what he is holding but wouldn't be able to say what it is, just show brushing motion.

5. What is the reason that these results occurred?
Since the brain is split, the two hemispheres do not communicate with each other. It is almost as if the people had two brains and you can talk only to one at a time.

6. What is the corpus callosum and what role does it serve in your brain?
Corpus callosum is a bundle of nerves that connects the two hemispheres of brain and allows communication between them which allows simultaneous work and understanding.

Sources:
http://www.openzine.com/aspx/ReadMore.aspx?ID=122859&lid=78&IssueID=19000&zineID=0&divid=317

http://www.macalester.edu/academics/psychology/whathap/ubnrp/split_brain/pioneers.html

The Dutch Hunger Winter

Dutch Hunger Winter lasted from November 1944. It was time period of World War II when North Neatherlands was under the German blockade and expiriencing very harsh winter at the same time. Germans took control of the food and sent it to Germany and thus the Dutch people were suffering from hunger. They nutrition intake was reduced to 30% of the normal nutrient intake.

People, specifically the infants that survived the Hunger Winter, all experienced malnutrition at the same time. Considering that and the perfect historical records from that time make them excellent test subjects. Scientists then looked and the grown adults that were born/ conceived during this awful time period. Another study showed the schyzophrenia is very common. It was found that genetics plays major role if this ilness will develop or no. When two identical twins are born and one of them has schyzophrenia, the other wtin has a 50% chance of having it, too.
It was found that babies that were conceived at the beginning of this time period were born smaller while babies conceived at the end of this period were born normal size. The ones that were born small stayed small throughout their whole life even though the malnutrition period already ended.
Also those people whose mothers were malnourished early in pregnancy had higher rates of obesity and other health problems including mental health, specifically shyzophrenia. Schyzophrenia is an ilness currenly affects about 50 million people worldwide. It causes hallucinations, delusions adn difficulties to mentally focus. Since people are not able to distinguish between reality and "the other world" it is dangerous, especially if these peiple are dangerous, which isn't very common. However, it can be treated. People with schizophrenia have 50 as much chance to commin suicide than other individuals.
Epigenetics is when DNA isn't the only factor i what is happening. Based on the Dutch Hunger Winter it can be observed that most of the affected people could have been born healthy. Yet the severe famine caused them to have health defects. In other words, epigenetics describes the effect of environment on us; a nature vs nurture effect.

Sources
http://www.naturalhistorymag.com/features/142195/beyond-dna-epigenetics

http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ww2peopleswar/stories/65/a5865465.shtml

Understanding and Applying the Theory of Evolution

1. Explain the theory of evolution.

Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection requires three conditions. The first, variation, is the difference in genes of members in the same species. For example, some finches had big beeks and some small ones. The next condition is selection, which consists of survival of the members of the species depending on their genetical differences, for example, finches with biger beaks can crush nuts with hard shell while the finches with small beaks can't. Therefore the bigger-beaked birds will survive in places where the only food are nuts. The third aspect of evolution is retention of the "chosen members" that were able to adapt to the surrounding. Universally said, evolution is the survival od the fittest.

2. Explain the“nature vs nurture” debate.

The nature vs nature debate is concenpt of struggle between heridity and environment and which of these two influences an individual more. Genes in DNA are the foundation of traits, yet without organism they are useless. For example, one may be born with genes for better running, yet without good nutrition provided by the environment those genes will neve be developed in traits. Genes develop the right traits only in the right environment. Genes themselves are the genetic code, also called genotype, that is part of the body, yet not all of it is expressed. The genes that are actually expressed as traits are called phenotypes.

3. What is wrong with the concept of “nature vs. nurture”?
Both, heredity and environment may have an equal effect on the development

4. What is meant by“social Darwinism”?

When the idea of evolution spread through the Victorian society, some peple like Herbert Spencer thought that people who are at the top of the society are more "fit". It was spencer who came up with the term "survival of the fittest". Some people then used this as an excuse to exploit of others.

5. Explain eugenics.

People realized that some individuals are more capable than others. They came up with an idea that if only the most capable were able to reproduce, they could create superior human race, just like people breed dogs and roses. This idea of breeding superior human race is called eugenetics.

6. What is the problem with the concept of eugenics?

Eugenetics is based on misunderstanding of the theory of evolution. It assumes that genes of some individuals are more superior compared to the other individuals. While this may seem true, with every sexual reproduction these genes switch around and new combinations with new traits are expressed. This fake superiority makes some of the individuals hink that they have more right to reproduce than others or even prevent them from reproducing.

7. What does the term “fitness” mean in relation to evolution?

Biological fitness in Darwin's term means an allele of a gene that makes its carrier more sucessful than other alelles of that gene. This carrier is morel likely to live sucessful life and produce more helathy offsprings. An example is an allele that has a resistance to some sort of deadly disease.

8. What is meant by“genetic determination”?

Belief that genes and the environment determine physical and mental development.

9. What is“fixation”?

Fixation is a new "froezn"trait. When a gene becomes ccommon in population due to genetic drift or natural selection, the population becomse comitted to it can be changed only due to mutation.

10. What is“canalization”?

It is a way of fixating genes where a trait is "controlled by family of genes for which there is only one allele in humans that all produce the same result" (page 32). In this case, the phenotypes are all the same.

11. What is“punctuated equilibrium”?

In African lakes, geologists found meters of snail skells thanks to whci they can recognize the differences of their adaptations throughout thousands of generations. However, not all generations differe and some traits are unchanged during many generations. Punctuated equilibrium is a time where natural selection exists, but it serves to maintain the existing form.

12. How does evolution relate to psychology?

Evolutionary psychology is another aspect of evolution. It applies biological changes to psychology and asks question such as "What are the bases of expirience, behavior, mind, and memory, of development and social interaction? Where do they come fom, and what are they for?" (page 3). They same way our bodies and the phycical structures were adapted, the same way was our mind.

Theo13. Examine one evolutionary explanation of behavior. Theorizing aAout Violen Crime (page 65)
It was observed that males vary in the tendencies to take care of their children. There are the males who are willing to commit to parenthood and take care of their children, also called dads. Then there are males who do not go beyond donating their sperm, these are called cads.
Females are due to sexual selection theory more attracted to dads, who are more likely to take care of their offsprings, which highers their chance of rerpoduction. Evn though their chances to pass on their genes are lowere, cads also have opportunity to repsoduce. They can promise loyalty and then leave after the female is impregnated. They can intimidate rival males, exaggarate their abilities as good providers by stealing from others. Or they can foce someone to have sex with them when all the other "nice" methods fail. They question is whether their behavior is genetically programmed. One of the answers may be that there is a condition called psychopacy, that is more common in males and causes them to be more manipulative, agressive and violent.
In 2002 in the USA, 19 884 men were arrested for rape compared to 278 women for the same aasault (page 64).






Source for questions 1-12:

http://www.simplypsychology.org/evolution%20%26%20psychology.pdf

Source for question 13:

http://www.sagepub.com/upm-data/26264_4sc.pdf

Prominent Psychologists

Name: A. H. Maslow
Born: April 1, 1908 in Brooklyn, New York
Died: June 8, 1970 in Menio Park, California
Education: From New York City College he transfered to Cornell, and then transfered back to City College. After graduating he went to graduate school at Wiskonsin College to study psuchology.
Subject of Study: At UW he was past of training as experimental-behaviorist.
Field of Professional Study: Humanistic psychology
Studies and Discoveries:

 Qualitios of Self-Actulizing People:
 Truth: honest, reality, beauty, pure, clean and unadulterated completeness

Goodness: rightness, desirability, uprightness, benevolence, honesty

Beauty: rightness, form, aliveness, simplicity, richness, wholeness, perfection, completion,

Wholeness: unity, integration, tendency to oneness, interconnectedness, simplicity, organization, structure, order, not dissociated, synergy

Dichotomy-transcendence: acceptance, resolution, integration, polarities, opposites, contradictions

Aliveness: process, not-deadness, spontaneity, self-regulation, full-functioning

Unique: idiosyncrasy, individuality, non comparability, novelty

Perfection: nothing superfluous, nothing lacking, everything in its right place, just-rightness, suitability, justice

Necessity: inevitability: it must be just that way, not changed in any slightest way

Completion: ending, justice, fulfillment

Justice: fairness, suitability, disinterestedness, non partiality,

Order: lawfulness, rightness, perfectly arranged

Simplicity: nakedness, abstract, essential skeletal, bluntness

Richness: differentiation, complexity, intricacy, totality

Effortlessness: ease; lack of strain, striving, or difficulty

Playfulness: fun, joy, amusement

Self-sufficiency: autonomy, independence, self-determining.

Dynamics of self-actualization
People are looking for healthy way of actlyzing themselves rather than selfish sociopathic behavior. People he considered self- actulized had strong connections and meaningful relationships. People whom he observed as self- actualyzed were for example Albert Einstein and Henry David Thoreau.

Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow's fundamental and most popular study.

Peak expiriences

Inbetween the needs of fulfillment, self-actulyzed people expirience many peak expiriences. These are moments of genuine happyness, understanding, acceptance and understanding of reality that make you feel more alive, more part of the world.



Metamotivation
It's a drive that makes people go beyon the basic needs (stated by Hierarchy of Needs) and reach their full potential.

B- Values
Manner of thought during peak expiriences:

Wholeness (unity; integration; tendency to one-ness; interconnectedness; simplicity; organization; structure; dichotomy-transcendence; order);

Perfection (necessity; just-right-ness; just-so-ness; inevitability; suitability; justice; completeness; "oughtness");

Completion (ending; finality; justice; "it's finished"; fulfillment; finis and telos; destiny; fate);

Justice (fairness; orderliness; lawfulness; "oughtness");

Aliveness (process; non-deadness; spontaneity; self-regulation; full-functioning);

Richness (differentiation, complexity; intricacy);

Simplicity (honesty; nakedness; essentiality; abstract, essential, skeletal structure);

Beauty (rightness; form; aliveness; simplicity; richness; wholeness; perfection; completion; uniqueness; honesty);

Goodness (rightness; desirability; oughtness; justice; benevolence; honesty);

Uniqueness (idiosyncrasy; individuality; non-comparability; novelty);

Effortlessness (ease; lack of strain, striving or difficulty; grace; perfect, beautiful functioning);

Playfulness (fun; joy; amusement; gaiety; humor; exuberance; effortlessness);

Truth (honesty; reality; nakedness; simplicity; richness; oughtness; beauty; pure, clean and unadulterated; completeness; essentiality).

Self-sufficiency (autonomy; independence; not-needing-other-than-itself-in-order-to-be-itself; self-determining; environment-transcendence; separateness; living by its own laws).

Sources: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Maslow


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Name: Carl G. Jung
Born: on july 26th, 1875 in Kessewil, Switzerland
Died: on June 6th, 1961 in Küssnacht, Switzerland
Education: Studiead at University of Basel.
Subject of study: Jung became a medical student, however, after a year of study he became intrigued by paraprsychology.
Field of Professional Study: Analitycal Psychology
Studies and Discoveries:

Collective Unconsciousness
Theory thats states that all mankind shares the same patterns of instincts, memories and instincs inherited from ancestors. These contain aspects such as religion, sciences and morality and are part of our unconscious mind.

 Archeotypes
 Related to collective unconsciousness, archeotypes are the universally inherited ideas and thought patterns individually present in each person.

Dream Interpretations
Jung believed that dreams are way of communicating with the unconscious mind and therefore reveal something about yoursels. Dreams are main part of personal growth. The interpretation of dreams is confidently placed on the dreamer since he has all necesarry tools needed to "unlock it", which can be achieved simply by discussing these dreams and making connections between what is going on in one's life and his relationships with others.

Alchemy
Alchemysts were people who tried to transform lead into gold. In Carl Jung's theory, alchemy represents transformation. When one translates his dreams, he follows aa process of individuation during which he eliminates the negative characteristic of his personality. This includes understanding mistakes, stop repeating them and thus acquiring consciousness (aka growing up).

Synchronicity
Synchronicity labels a coincidental events that are unrelated yet happened in a meaningful manner. This states that as events can be grouped by cause, they can be also related by meaning. However, if these evnts are connected by cause, thhis theory is negated and the events labeled as "incoincidential".

Sources: http://www.nndb.com/people/910/000031817/
                http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Jung
                http://faculty.frostburg.edu/mbradley/psyography/carljung.html
                http://www.carl-jung.net/collective_unconscious.html
                http://www.thefreedictionary.com/collective+unconscious
                http://www.quora.com/What-is-alchemy-according-to-Carl-Jung
                http://dark-side-of-the-rainbow.com/synchronicity.html

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Name: Alfred W. Adler                                                 
Born: on February 7th, 1870 in Rudolfsheim near Vienna, Austria- Hungary
Died: on May 28th, 1937 in Aberdeen, Scotland
Education: Studied at University of Vienna.
Subject of Study: Studiet to be a physician. He was very interested in psychology, sociology and philosophy, later in neurology and psychiatry.
Field of Professional Study: Individual psychology
Studies and Discoveries:


Inferiority Complex
According to Alder's theory, every child goest through period of inferiority because he is surrounded by stronger, more capable adults. This leads to the strive for power and self actualization. The people who never overcome these feelings then develop inferioritz complex/

Private Intelligence
When a person doesn\t overcome certain feelings as a child, he tends to acquire private intelligence. By that is meant a framework withink his own limits that is intellingent in his own terms, but many times socially unacceptable. For example a robber steals mney, he says that he did it  because he could\t get money any other way. \since he wasn\t able to get money any other social way as the other people, in his terms this is the intelligent way of getting them.

Holism
A belief that all the natural systems {physical, biological, chemical, social, economic, mental) work together and can\t be understood individually. Also their properties hsould be viewed as wholes and not as collections of parts.

Sources: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Adler
                http://psychology.about.com/od/profilesal/p/alfred-adler.htm 


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Name :Ivan Pavlov
Born: on September 25th, 1849 in Ryazan, Russia
Died: on February 27th, 1936 in Leningrad, Soviet Union
Education: Pavlov started at Theological Seminary of Ryazan where he studied to become a priest, however, then he got admitted to the University of St. Petersburg. He also entered the Military Medical Academy.
Subject of Study: In St. Petersburg he studied animal physiology, chemistry, organic chemistry and inorganic chemistry.
Field of Professional Study: Behaviorism
Studies and Discoveries:

Classical Conditioning
States that two stimuli assiciate to produce a new leaned response to a person or anme. When he ws studying digestion, he also discovered that whener assistants in lab coats entered the room, the dogs used for experiments started salivating. Those dogs were associating the people with food and therefore they started to salivate.

Sources:
 http://www.notablebiographies.com/Ni-Pe/Pavlov-Ivan.html#b#ixzz2CkOyOZLp 



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Name: Stanley Milgram
Born: on August 15, 1933 in New York City
Died: on December 20, 1984 in New York City
Education:  Bachelors degree acquired from Queens College in New York and PhD from Harvard.
Subject of Study: In New York Milgram studied political science and at Harvard he received Phd in social psychology.
Field of Professional Study: social psycholgy
Studies and Discoveries:

Obedience to authority figures

An experiment that Milgram set up consisted of 1 examinator, actor and the test subject. The test subject T was considered a teacher that was supposed to give painful electroshocks to the actor, learner L every time he answers incorrectly to a question and increase the woltage after each time. If the test subject T wanted to stop the experiment, the examinator would respond each time:
1st time: Please continue.
2nd time: The experiment requires that you continue.
3rd time: It is absolutely essential that you continue.
4th time:You have no other choice, you must go on.

The experiment was stopped after the test subject wanted to discontinue after 4th time or after the test subject shocked the actor 3 times of the highest possible voltage. The electroshocks were faked but the study showed, that people go beyond their moral beliefs if pressured by authority.

Sources: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milgram_Experiment

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Name: Paul Ekman
Born: February 15, 1934 in Washinghton D.C.
Died: not yet
Education: University of Chicago (undergraduate enrollment),New York University (bachelors degree), Adelphi University (PhD)
Subjectc of Study: Clinical psychology (PhD)
Field of Professional Study: Behavioral Science
Studies and Discoveries:

Measuring Nonverbal Communication
In this study Ejkman attempted to find a method to measure non-verbal communication. At first he focused mainly on facial expressions and the muscle movement in them. Later on he also focused on body language and tried to conclude his theory with an infamous cross-cultural studies (comparing data from beavior of multiple cultures).

Emotions as Universal Categories
This studies shows that there are 6 universal emotions; anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness and surprise. These emotions are detectable in all cultures even though the may be expressed slightly differently in different circumstances (shows difference between cultures). In the 1990s he added more emotions that, however, cannot be detected from the movement of facial muscles: amusement, contempt, contentment, emberassment, excitement, guild, pride in achievement, relief, satisfaction, sensory pleasure and shame.

Sources: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Ekman
               http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-cultural_studies
  

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Name: Sigmund Freud
Born: on May 6, 1856 in Freiberg in Mähren, Austrian Empire
Died: on September 23, 193 in London, England
Education: University of Vienna
Subject of Study: medicine
Field of Professional Study: Neurology, Psychoanalysis, Psychotherapy
Studies and Discoveries:

Conscious and Unconscious Mind
Freud stated that our mind consisted of the conscious and the uncoscious mind. The conscious mind included part of memory and also rational thing, in other words, everything that we could recall and withdraw at any moment. The uncoscious part were memories and feelings that we aren't aware of, which, however, exist and continue to affect our behavior and doings.

Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality
This theory stated that the human personality is a complex of the Id, Ego and Superego. Id is responsible for the needs and the pleasure drive. The Ego is dealing with reality and its job is to satisfy the Id in an acceptable manner. The Superego is the guidline for judgements in terms of "right" and "wrong".  


Life and Death Drives
Freud stated that human instincs fall either into the Life drive category or the Death drive category. Life instincs, also know as Eros, are the instincts to survive and continue life aka reproduction. This reffers to mainly sexual instincts but also includes avoidance of pain, thirst and hunger. The energy created by these psychosexual instincts is called libido.
The Death drive, Thanatos, proposes that the "goal of life is death". When a person expiriences something traumatic, such as war, he to subconsciously becomes to invite death. However, this impulse is fought by the Life drive. If the energy created by the Thantos is directed towards others it is expressed as agression and violence.

Psychosexual Development
Probably his most famous theory states that throughout the development, a person becomes fixated to different objects as a result of the libido, in other words they are porymorphously perverse. First stage is the oral stage, where child seeks pleasure from sucking on differen objects. Following is the anal stage (pleasure from passing the poop), then follows the phallic stage. In this stage, males become atracted to their mothers as sexual objects, this is called Oedipus Complex. The girls become fixated on their fathers, which is reffered to as the Electra complex, yet Freud believed that this type of complex was bisexual and therefore directed to both parents. This feeling is the unavoidable urge for incest that must be repressed. The latency stage is a more stable period where child, with the superego present, accepts that its longings for parents cannot be fulfilled and therefore this stage is the time for the improvement of self. Genital stage is a stage of sexual maturity that, however, may not be achieved if the phollical stage is not dealt with properly.

Sources: http://www.biography.com/people/sigmund-freud-9302400
              http://psychology.about.com/od/sigmundfreud/a/instincts.htm


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Name: Erik Erikson
Born: on June 15th, 1902 in Frankfurt, Germany
Died: on May 12th, 1994 in Harwich, Massachusetts
Education: After finishing high school he only attended Vienna Psychoanalytic Society, without getting any degrees in college.
Subjects of Study: Psychoanalysis
Field of Professional Study: Developmental psychology, Psychoanalysis
Discoveries and Studies:

Stages of Psychosocial Development
This theory states that humans undergo through social development beginning in infancy through childhood, aduldhood to death.

Approximate Age[2]	Virtues	Psycho Social Crisis [3]	Significant Relationship[2]	Existential Question[2]	Examples[2]
0–2 years	Hopes	Basic Trust vs. Mistrust	Mother	Can I Trust the World?	Feeding, Abandonment
2–4 years	Will	Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt	Parents	Is It Okay To Be Me?	Toilet Training, Clothing Themselves
4–5 years	Purpose	Initiative vs. Guilt	Family	Is It Okay For Me To Do, Move and Act?	Exploring, Using Tools or Making Art
5–12 years	Competence	Industry vs. Inferiority	Neighbors, School	Can I Make It In The World Of People And Things?	School, Sports
13–19 years	Fidelity	Identity vs. Role Confusion	Peers, Role Model	Who Am I? What Can I Be?	Social Relationships
20–24 years	Love	Intimacy vs. Isolation	Friends, Partners	Can I Love?	Romantic Relationships
25–64 years	Care	Generativity vs. Stagnation	Household, Workmates	Can I Make My Life Count?	Work, Parenthood
65-death	Wisdom	Ego Integrity vs. Despair	Mankind, My Kind	Is It Okay To Have Been Me?	Reflection on Life

Identity Crisis
During adolscence period an individual forms a self-image since they expirience physical growth and sexual maturation and find importance of what others think and what are our own opinions. In person doesn't solve this problem, they end up having identity crisis.

Sources: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erik_Erikson
              http://psychology.about.com/od/profilesofmajorthinkers/p/bio_erikson.htm


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Name:Jean Paiget
Born: on 9 August 1896 in Neuchatel, Switzerland
Died: on 16 September 1980 in Geneva, Switzerland
Education: University of Neuchâtel, University of Zurich
Subjects of Study: natural history and phylosophy,
Field of Professional Study: Psychoanalysis
Discoveries and Studies:

Theory of Cognityve Development
This theory states that children build an understanding of world around them and then they expirience the differences/ simmilarities between what they already know and what they discover.

Sources: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_cognitive_development








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Name: Anna Freud
Born: on December 3rd, 1895in Vienna, Austria
Died: on October 9th 1982 in London, England
Education: Cottage Lyceum in Vienna
Subjects of Study: taught psychoanalysis from father (Sigmund Freud) and languages such as Hebrew, German, Italian, French and English
Field of Professional Study: Psychoanalysis, Psychoanalytic Child Psychology
Studies and Discoveries:

Psychoanalytic Child Psychology

Anna was a teacher and that gave her the chance to observe children. She realized, that her analysis of children differ from Sigmund Freud's analysis of adults. Therefore the belief that children are smaller versions of adults was refueded and thus she created a new branch of psychology, the Child Psychology.


Sources: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ego_psychology
               http://www2.webster.edu/~woolflm/annafreud.html